class 12th chemistry chapter solution

            12th chemistry chapter solution 

I. Introduction to Solutions

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
• Solvent is the component present in the largest amount, while the solute is the other component(s).

II. Types of Solutions

• Unsaturated solutions have not reached the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent.
• Saturated solutions have the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
• Supersaturated solutions contain more solute than the solvent can normally dissolve at a given temperature and pressure.

III. Concentration of Solutions

• Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
• Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
• Percent composition is the mass of solute per 100 grams of solution.
• Parts per million (ppm) is the number of parts of solute per million parts of solution.

IV. Colligative Properties of Solutions

• Colligative properties depend on the number of solute particles in solution, not their identity.
• Examples of colligative properties include lowering of vapor pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, and osmotic pressure.

V. Laws Governing Solutions

• Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution.
• Henry's law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.

VI. Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis

• Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane.
• Reverse osmosis is the process of applying pressure to overcome osmotic pressure and move solvent molecules from a region of higher solute concentration to a region of lower solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane.

VII. Dialysis

• Dialysis is the process of separating solutes based on their size and charge using a semipermeable membrane.

VIII. Colloids

• Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures with particles intermediate in size between a solution and a suspension.
• Examples of colloids include emulsions, foams, and gels.

                                 Formulas

I. Concentration Formulas:

• Molarity (M) = moles of solute / liters of solution
• Molality (m) = moles of solute / kilograms of solvent
• Mass percentage = (mass of solute / mass of solution) x 100%
• Volume percentage = (volume of solute / volume of solution) x 100%
• Parts per million (ppm) = (mass of solute / mass of solution) x 10^6
• Parts per billion (ppb) = (mass of solute / mass of solution) x 10^9

II. Raoult's Law Formula:

• Vapor pressure of solution (P) = mole fraction of solvent (Xsolvent) x vapor pressure of pure solvent (Psolvent)
• P = Xsolvent x Psolvent

III. Colligative Properties Formulas:

• Freezing point depression (ΔTf) = Kf x molality of solute
• Boiling point elevation (ΔTb) = Kb x molality of solute
• Osmotic pressure (Π) = MRT (where M is the molarity of the solute, R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature in Kelvin)
• Van't Hoff factor (i) = moles of particles in solution after dissociation / moles of solute dissolved

IV. Henry's Law Formula:

• Concentration of gas in solution (C) = kH x partial pressure of gas above solution (Pgas)

V. Solubility Product Formula:

• Solubility product constant (Ksp) = [A+]^m [B-]^n (where A and B are ions in a dissociation reaction, and m and n are their stoichiometric coefficients)