Easiest biomolecule Notes12th class Cbse

detailed note on the chapter "Biomolecules" in Class 12 Chemistry:

Introduction: Biomolecules are the molecules that are involved in the maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms. Biomolecules can be broadly classified into four types: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth, and they are essential for providing energy to the body. Carbohydrates are classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides based on their structure. Monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose, are the simplest carbohydrates and cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller sugars. Disaccharides, such as sucrose and lactose, are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides, such as starch and cellulose, are formed by the condensation of many monosaccharide units. Proteins: Proteins are large biomolecules that are involved in various cellular processes, including structural support, enzymatic catalysis, and transport. Proteins are composed of amino acid monomers that are linked together by peptide bonds. Proteins are classified into four levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Lipids: Lipids are a diverse group of biomolecules that are insoluble in water. Lipids are classified into four types: fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. Fatty acids are the building blocks of most lipids and are composed of a carboxylic acid group attached to a hydrocarbon chain. Triglycerides are formed by the esterification of three fatty acids with a glycerol molecule. Phospholipids are composed of a polar head group and two fatty acid tails and are the main component of cell membranes. Steroids, such as cholesterol and hormones, are composed of a four-ring structure and have various physiological functions. Nucleic Acids: Nucleic acids are biomolecules that store and transmit genetic information. Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotide monomers that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. Nucleic acids are classified into two types: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is composed of a double helix structure and stores genetic information, while RNA is involved in the synthesis of proteins. Conclusion: The chapter "Biomolecules" in Class 12 Chemistry covers the essential biomolecules carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. The knowledge of these biomolecules is crucial in understanding the biochemistry and metabolic processes in living organisms.

Easiest amines Notes12th class Cbse

"Amines" :

Introduction:

Amines are organic compounds that contain a nitrogen atom bonded to one or more alkyl or aryl groups. Amines are classified based on the number of alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the nitrogen atom: primary (1°), secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°). Amines have a wide range of applications, including as solvents, dyes, and pharmaceuticals.

Preparation of Amines:

1. Reduction of Nitro Compounds:

Amines can be prepared by reducing nitro compounds with reducing agents such as hydrogen gas (H2) or tin (Sn) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).

2. Reduction of Nitriles:

Amines can also be prepared by reducing nitriles with reducing agents such as lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4) or sodium borohydride (NaBH4).

3. Gabriel Synthesis:

Primary amines can be synthesized by the Gabriel synthesis, which involves the reaction of potassium phthalimide with an alkyl halide, followed by hydrolysis and decarboxylation.

4. Hoffmann Bromamide Reaction:

Amines can also be prepared by the Hoffmann bromamide reaction, which involves the reaction of a primary amide with bromine and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), followed by heating with a strong acid.

Properties of Amines:

1. Basicity:

Amines are basic in nature due to the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom. The basicity of amines depends on the number of alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the nitrogen atom.

2. Solubility:

Amines are generally soluble in organic solvents, but their solubility in water decreases with increasing size of the alkyl or aryl groups.

3. Boiling Point:

The boiling points of amines increase with increasing size of the alkyl or aryl groups due to stronger intermolecular forces.

4. Alkylation and Acylation:

Amines can be alkylated or acylated to form secondary or tertiary amines. The reaction involves the replacement of one of the hydrogen atoms bonded to the nitrogen atom with an alkyl or acyl group.

Reactions of Amines:

1. Reaction with Acids:

Amines react with acids to form salts. The salts are soluble in water and are often used in the preparation of pharmaceuticals.

2. Reaction with Nitrous Acid:

Primary amines react with nitrous acid (HNO2) to form nitrosoamines, which are used in the production of dyes.

3. Reaction with Carbonyl Compounds:

Amines can react with carbonyl compounds, such as aldehydes and ketones, to form imines. The reaction is known as the Schiff base reaction and is used in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals.

4. Reaction with Haloalkanes:

Amines can react with haloalkanes to form secondary and tertiary amines. The reaction is known as the alkylation reaction and is used in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals.

In conclusion, the chapter "Amines" in Class 12 Chemistry covers the preparation, properties, and reactions of amines. Understanding the chemistry of amines is important in many fields, including pharmaceuticals, dyes, and organic solvents

Easiest alcohols ,phenols and ethers Acids Notes12th class Cbse

"Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers" in Class 12 Chemistry:

Introduction: Alcohols, phenols, and ethers are three important classes of organic compounds. Alcohols are compounds in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is attached to a carbon atom. Phenols are compounds in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is attached to a benzene ring. Ethers are compounds in which an oxygen atom is bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups.

Nomenclature: Alcohols are named by replacing the -e ending of the corresponding alkane with -ol. Phenols are named by adding the suffix -ol to the name of the parent hydrocarbon. Ethers are named by naming the two alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the oxygen atom, followed by the word "ether".

Preparation: Alcohols can be prepared by several methods, such as the hydration of alkenes, the reduction of carbonyl compounds, and the reduction of nitro compounds. Phenols can be prepared by the hydrolysis of diazonium salts, the oxidation of aromatic hydrocarbons, and the electrophilic substitution of aromatic compounds. Ethers can be prepared by the Williamson ether synthesis, which involves the reaction of an alkoxide ion with an alkyl halide.

Physical properties: Alcohols, phenols, and ethers are all polar compounds and exhibit hydrogen bonding. Alcohols and phenols have higher boiling points than ethers due to their ability to form stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

Chemical properties: Alcohols can undergo several reactions such as dehydration, oxidation, and esterification. Phenols can undergo electrophilic substitution reactions, such as the reaction with nitric acid to form picric acid. Ethers are relatively inert compounds and do not undergo many reactions.

Uses: Alcohols are commonly used as solvents, antiseptics, and fuels. Phenols are used as disinfectants, antiseptics, and in the production of resins and plastics. Ethers are used as solvents and as intermediates in the synthesis of other organic compounds.

In conclusion, the chapter "Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers" in Class 12 Chemistry covers important concepts related to the nomenclature, preparation, physical and chemical properties, and uses of alcohols, phenols, and ethers.

Easiest Adehydes. ketons and Carboxylic Acids Notes12th class Cbse

detailed note on the chapter "Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids" in Class 12 Chemistry:

 

Introduction:

Aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids are three important classes of organic compounds that contain a carbonyl functional group (-C=O). Aldehydes have the carbonyl group at the end of a carbon chain, while ketones have the carbonyl group in the middle of a carbon chain. Carboxylic acids have a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the same carbon atom.

Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones:

Aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by the oxidation of alcohols. Primary alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes, while secondary alcohols are oxidized to ketones. Aldehydes and ketones can also be prepared by the oxidation of alkylbenzenes with potassium permanganate or chromyl chloride.

Preparation of Carboxylic Acids:

Carboxylic acids can be prepared by the oxidation of primary alcohols or aldehydes with potassium permanganate or chromic acid. Carboxylic acids can also be prepared by the hydrolysis of nitriles, which are organic compounds containing a cyano functional group (-CN).

Physical Properties:

Aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids have lower boiling points than alcohols and carboxylic acids of similar molecular weight. This is because they cannot form hydrogen bonds with themselves, but can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.

Chemical Properties:

Aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions with nucleophiles such as water, alcohols, and ammonia. Carboxylic acids undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions with nucleophiles such as water and alcohols. Aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to alcohols using reducing agents such as sodium borohydride or lithium aluminum hydride. Carboxylic acids can be reduced to alcohols using reducing agents such as lithium aluminum hydride.

Acidity of Carboxylic Acids:

Carboxylic acids are weak acids that dissociate partially in water to form carboxylate ions and hydronium ions. The acidity of carboxylic acids is due to the ability of the carboxyl group to donate a proton to a base. The strength of carboxylic acids as acids increases with the number of electron-withdrawing groups attached to the carbonyl group.

In conclusion, the chapter "Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids" in Class 12 Chemistry covers important concepts related to the preparation, physical and chemical properties, and acidity of aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids.

Easiest p-block Notes12th class Cbse

"p-Block Elements" in Class 12 Chemistry:

Introduction:

The p-block elements are those elements in the periodic table that occupy the p-block. These elements include boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), fluorine (F), neon (Ne), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl), argon (Ar), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), selenium (Se), bromine (Br), krypton (Kr), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te), iodine (I), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn).

Properties:

The p-block elements have a wide range of properties, including the ability to form covalent compounds, the ability to form multiple oxidation states, and the ability to form strong acids and bases.

Boron and carbon are non-metals, whereas the other elements in the p-block are either metals or metalloids.

Group 13 elements, including boron and aluminum, have three valence electrons and tend to form compounds in the +3 oxidation state. Boron has a unique structure due to its ability to form electron-deficient compounds.

Group 14 elements, including carbon, silicon, germanium, and tin, have four valence electrons and tend to form compounds in the +4 oxidation state. Carbon is known for its ability to form a variety of compounds, including hydrocarbons, carbohydrates, and amino acids. Silicon is widely used in the semiconductor industry.

Group 15 elements, including nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, have five valence electrons and tend to form compounds in the -3, +3, and +5 oxidation states. Nitrogen is a crucial element in biological systems, and its fixation is an important process. Phosphorus is used in the production of fertilizers and is also important in biological systems.

Group 16 elements, including oxygen, sulfur, selenium, and tellurium, have six valence electrons and tend to form compounds in the -2 and +6 oxidation states. Oxygen is crucial for respiration and is also used in the production of fuels. Sulfur is used in the production of sulfuric acid and is also important in biological systems.

Group 17 elements, including fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine, have seven valence electrons and tend to form compounds in the -1, +1, +3, +5, and +7 oxidation states. These elements are known for their ability to form strong acids and bases.

Group 18 elements, including helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon, have eight valence electrons and tend to be inert.

Applications:

The p-block elements have a wide range of applications in various fields. For example, boron is used in the production of ceramics and in the control of nuclear reactions. Carbon is used in the production of graphene, nanotubes, and other nanomaterials. Nitrogen is used in the production of fertilizers, while sulfur is used in the production of sulfuric acid. Fluorine is used in the production of refrigerants and in the nuclear industry.

In conclusion, the chapter "p-Block Elements" in Class 12 Chemistry covers important concepts related to the properties and applications of the p-block elements.

class 12th chemistry chapter solution

            12th chemistry chapter solution 

I. Introduction to Solutions

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
• Solvent is the component present in the largest amount, while the solute is the other component(s).

II. Types of Solutions

• Unsaturated solutions have not reached the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent.
• Saturated solutions have the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
• Supersaturated solutions contain more solute than the solvent can normally dissolve at a given temperature and pressure.

III. Concentration of Solutions

• Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
• Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
• Percent composition is the mass of solute per 100 grams of solution.
• Parts per million (ppm) is the number of parts of solute per million parts of solution.

IV. Colligative Properties of Solutions

• Colligative properties depend on the number of solute particles in solution, not their identity.
• Examples of colligative properties include lowering of vapor pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, and osmotic pressure.

V. Laws Governing Solutions

• Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution.
• Henry's law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.

VI. Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis

• Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane.
• Reverse osmosis is the process of applying pressure to overcome osmotic pressure and move solvent molecules from a region of higher solute concentration to a region of lower solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane.

VII. Dialysis

• Dialysis is the process of separating solutes based on their size and charge using a semipermeable membrane.

VIII. Colloids

• Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures with particles intermediate in size between a solution and a suspension.
• Examples of colloids include emulsions, foams, and gels.

                                 Formulas

I. Concentration Formulas:

• Molarity (M) = moles of solute / liters of solution
• Molality (m) = moles of solute / kilograms of solvent
• Mass percentage = (mass of solute / mass of solution) x 100%
• Volume percentage = (volume of solute / volume of solution) x 100%
• Parts per million (ppm) = (mass of solute / mass of solution) x 10^6
• Parts per billion (ppb) = (mass of solute / mass of solution) x 10^9

II. Raoult's Law Formula:

• Vapor pressure of solution (P) = mole fraction of solvent (Xsolvent) x vapor pressure of pure solvent (Psolvent)
• P = Xsolvent x Psolvent

III. Colligative Properties Formulas:

• Freezing point depression (ΔTf) = Kf x molality of solute
• Boiling point elevation (ΔTb) = Kb x molality of solute
• Osmotic pressure (Π) = MRT (where M is the molarity of the solute, R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature in Kelvin)
• Van't Hoff factor (i) = moles of particles in solution after dissociation / moles of solute dissolved

IV. Henry's Law Formula:

• Concentration of gas in solution (C) = kH x partial pressure of gas above solution (Pgas)

V. Solubility Product Formula:

• Solubility product constant (Ksp) = [A+]^m [B-]^n (where A and B are ions in a dissociation reaction, and m and n are their stoichiometric coefficients)