AxY : solution

12th chemistry chapter solution

I. Introduction to Solutions

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
Solvent is the component present in the largest amount, while the solute is the other component(s).

II. Types of Solutions

Unsaturated solutions have not reached the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent.
Saturated solutions have the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
Supersaturated solutions contain more solute than the solvent can normally dissolve at a given temperature and pressure.

III. Concentration of Solutions

Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
Percent composition is the mass of solute per 100 grams of solution.
Parts per million (ppm) is the number of parts of solute per million parts of solution.

IV. Colligative Properties of Solutions

Colligative properties depend on the number of solute particles in solution, not their identity.
Examples of colligative properties include lowering of vapor pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, and osmotic pressure.

V. Laws Governing Solutions

Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution.
Henry's law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.

VI. Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis

Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane.
Reverse osmosis is the process of applying pressure to overcome osmotic pressure and move solvent molecules from a region of higher solute concentration to a region of lower solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane.

VII. Dialysis

Dialysis is the process of separating solutes based on their size and charge using a semipermeable membrane.

VIII. Colloids

Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures with particles intermediate in size between a solution and a suspension.
Examples of colloids include emulsions, foams, and gels.

Formulas

I. Concentration Formulas:

II. Raoult's Law Formula:

Vapor pressure of solution (P) = mole fraction of solvent (Xsolvent) x vapor pressure of pure solvent (Psolvent)
P = Xsolvent x Psolvent

III. Colligative Properties Formulas:

Freezing point depression (ΔTf) = Kf x molality of solute
Boiling point elevation (ΔTb) = Kb x molality of solute
Osmotic pressure (Π) = MRT (where M is the molarity of the solute, R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature in Kelvin)
Van't Hoff factor (i) = moles of particles in solution after dissociation / moles of solute dissolved

IV. Henry's Law Formula:

Concentration of gas in solution (C) = kH x partial pressure of gas above solution (Pgas)

V. Solubility Product Formula:

Solubility product constant (Ksp) = [A+]^m [B-]^n (where A and B are ions in a dissociation reaction, and m and n are their stoichiometric coefficients)

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